语言学英语简答

What is Language / Linguistics

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.

The design features of language (语言的定义特征)

Arbitrariness (任意性)
which means that there is no logical connection between the sound of morpheme [ˈmɔːfiːm] and its meaning.
The arbitrariness and motivation of language.语言的任意性和理据性

Duality(二重性)
It refers to the property of having two levels of structures, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

1. Sound Level: Individual sounds (phonemes) that are meaningless on their own.
2. Meaning Level: These sounds are combined into meaningful units (words and sentences).
   This feature allows a finite set of sounds to create an infinite number of meaningful expressions, making it a unique characteristic of human language.

Creativity(创造性)——By it, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality(二层性) and itself recursiveness(递归性).

Productivity (能产性)——Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

Displacement——it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present, in time and space, at the moment of communication.

Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)
Language is culturally transmitted.

Interchangeability (互换性)
Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.

Functions of language (语言的功能)

Informative function (信息功能)
Interpersonal function (人际功能)
Performative function (施为功能)【mainly used to change people’s social status，such as in wedding ceremony, the blessing of infants】
Emotive function (感情功能)
Phatic[ˈfætɪk] function (寒暄功能)
Recreational function (娱乐功能)
Metalingual function (元语言功能)

Some Basic Distinctions (区分) in Linguistics

Ferdinand de Saussure's paradigmatic (associative) and syntagmatic relations are key concepts in structural linguistics:

1. Paradigmatic [ˌpærədɪɡˈmætɪk]relations (聚合关系): These refer to relationships between elements that can substitute for one another in a specific context. For example, in the sentence "I eat an apple," the word "apple" could be replaced with "orange" or "banana." These words belong to the same paradigm[ˈpærədaɪm] because they share similar functions and meanings.
2. Syntagmatic [,sɪntæg'mætɪk]relations (组合关系): These refer to the linear relationships between elements that occur together in a sequence. For example, in the same sentence, "I eat an apple," the words "I," "eat," and "an apple" combine according to grammatical rules to form a coherent sentence.
   In short:

• Paradigmatic = substitution relationships (vertical associations).

• Syntagmatic = combination relationships (horizontal sequences).

• 隐喻：Metaphor Metaphor: A figure of speech where one thing is described as another because they are similar. Example: "Time is a thief" (time is compared to a thief because it "steals" moments).

  • 指通过一个事物来描述另一个事物，基于两者之间的相似性。例如，“He has a heart of stone” 是一种隐喻，将心比作石头来表达冷酷无情。

• 转喻：Metonymy Metonymy: A figure of speech where something is referred to by something closely related to it. Example: "The pen is mightier than the sword" (pen represents writing, sword represents fighting).

  • 指用一个与某事物密切相关的事物来代替它。例如，用 “the crown” 来指代 “king or queen”（王权）就是一种转喻。

==Speech and Writing ==
One general principle (原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy[ˈpraɪməsi] of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope (范畴) and uses that speech does not have.

==Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性规定式) ==
A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.

Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic[sɪŋˈkrɒnɪk] study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic[ˌdaɪəˈkrɒnɪk] study.

==Langue(语言) and Parole(言语) ==
This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔 谐音 soxyuer）early last century. langue[lɑːŋɡ] refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole[pəˈrəʊl] refers to the actualized (实际的) language, or realization of langue.

==Competence(能力)and Performance(行为) ==
Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances[ˈʌtərənsɪz]发声.

Functionalism 功能主义＆ Formalism 结构主义
Functionalism/Functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. It holds that the use of language influence its form. Most contemporary linguistics in Europe since the Prague /prɑːɡ/ 布拉格学派School is functional
Formalism/Formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. The most outstanding representative of formalism . Noam Chomsky' s transformational-generative grammar (TG grammar)

The Scope of Linguistics

General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Microlinguistics（微观语言学）Macrolinguistics（宏观语言学）
Phonetics (语音学[fəˈnetɪks]) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

Phonology (音韵学 音系学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.

Morphology (词法[mɔːˈfɒlədʒi]形态学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.

Syntax (句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.

Semantics (语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.

pragmatics 语用学 can be defined as the study of language in use.

Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.
Anthropological[ˌænθrəpəˈlɒdʒɪkəl] linguistics (人类语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.
Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
Computational linguistics (计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer.